There is broad consensus that three types of risk confront the potential bond purchaser: the risk of default (possible interest and/or principal loss), the risk of interest rate changes (possible principal loss or gain if the bonds are sold before maturity), and price level risk (loss of purchasing power). The analysis in this paper is directed toward the first of these risks, the risk of default. By assuming that investors require interest rate adjustments on debt subject to default sufficient to give them an expected present value equal to the present value associated with the investment of their funds in default-free securities, we examine the process that determines the risk-adjusted equilibrium interest rate and the factors affecting that rate. We also examine the implications of the model for the cost of debt and a firm's debt capacity.

The current literature or business finance states that debt is a cheaper source of capital than stock (tending to reduce the firm's cost of capital), because interest is deductible for income tax purposes while the return to common stockholders is subject to tax. It is even possible to issue debt without increasing the risk to the owners (the debt is issued to stockholders in proportion to the ownership of stock, or equivalently investors buy a mixture of stocks and bonds on the market). However, it is argued in this paper that if we assume that the present stockholders have no further resources available for investment in the firm, but the enterprise needs additional resources, then the present stockholders have to make a basic decision about whether to issue stock or debt to raise the additional needed capital. The issuance of debt in this situation increases risk, and the issuance of stock dilutes ownership. Even when bondholders require a much lower contractual return than the expected annual return of stockholders, the issuance of more stock may be preferred to the issuance of debt.

This article focuses on the income concept, which deals with many major accounting problems. The main focus is on two general concepts, income as an increment in value and income as a predictor of earnings. These may be useful in resolving some problems of income measurement. An understanding of these two concepts may also be helpful in deciding questions of presentation of financial position. The theories underlying income measurement and financial position presentations are, of course, completely intertwined. In practice, the measurements of income and financial position are also fled together, but not always in a beneficial manner. Too frequently the accountant approaches a transaction and chooses the method for recording it that better measures income or better measures the financial position of a corporation. In this paper the author will develop a means of evaluating different ways of recording transactions, without compromising on the quality of either the measure of income or financial position.

This article focuses on the computation of earning per share. The Accounting Principles Board of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has taken the position that in the computation of a corporation's earnings per common share explicit adjustment should be made for the existence of outstanding senior stock or debt which is convertible into common shares and for outstanding stock options. The Board has recommended that earnings per share be based on the number of the corporation's common shares outstanding plus the number of common shares reserved for the conversion of convertible preferred stock and convertible debentures and for stock option shares granted to employees but not yet exercised. The Board stresses the fact that the relationship between current market and conversion prices may make conversion or other contingent issuance unlikely in the foreseeable future is not sufficient basis for omission of the disclosure of the earnings per share as recommended. The guidelines laid out by the Accounting Principles Board are an important and useful first step towards achieving more useful information on earnings per share.