Knowledge that Transforms

This paper proposes a paradigm for managing the dynamic aspects of organizational knowledge creating processes. Its central theme is that organizational knowledge is created through a continuous di...

This paper examines the introduction and adaptation of technologies that support productive operations. The authors argue that the process of technological adaptation is not gradual and continuous,...

Organization theory has been preoccupied for many years with the bureaucratic form. Insufficient attention has been given to alternative designs, including, in particular, professional organizations of various types. This article considers these professional organizations at length within the context of professional role motivation theory. It also considers the concept of fit or congruence as it enters into professional role motivation theory and into organization theory generally. Considerable support for the congruence concept is provided via an analysis of data on over 100 labor arbitrators. The findings indicate that (1) arbitrators work in a predominantly professional context and (2) professional motivation is closely associated with various indexes of arbitrator effectiveness. Effective arbitrators are more motivated to provide help to others, more desirous of status, more interested in acquiring knowledge and learning, more professionally committed, and to a somewhat lesser degree more desirous of acting independently. These patterns are found to characterize the lawyers within the sample to at least an equal degree. The data indicate that the professional organizational form encompasses professional components of otherwise bureaucratic organizations such as universities and governments, professional organizations such as law firms, and private professional practices. It is apparent that professional systems are important in the practice of organizational design and that they are distinct from the bureaucratic form.

Workplace drug testing, particularly urinalysis, has proliferated in the last few years. Despite widespread support for biological testing, research suggests that not all drug use diminishes performance and that testing may fail to deter the most potentially harmful substance abuse. There is no solid empirical evidence that drug testing is associated with enhanced organizational productivity and safety, and findings that persons who fail drug tests are inferior workers may be rooted in ethnic discrimination. Further, because drug testing detects exposure to a drug but cannot assess an individual's ability to perform, it is an inappropriate gauge for judging the suitability of employees or applicants. Drug tests may violate current and prospective employees' right to privacy and, according to a growing body of literature, may adversely affect their work attitudes and behaviors. Skills testing, which assesses employees' performance fitness less intrusively, discussed as an alternative to biological testing.

We explain the deeper organizational wisdom behind what Steven Kerr called the “folly” of seemingly inconsistent reward structures. Modern organizations—even those Kerr specifically criticizes as “fouled-up”—frequently need to serve two contradictory goals at the same time. Three conditions in particular require sophisticated organizations to reward A while nonetheless hoping for B. First, operative goals—e.g., for a police department—may require practical activities like “social work” that do not conform to the official culture of “crime fighting command bureaucracy.” Attempting to reward only these police activities which support the official goals would harm both the force and the citizens they serve. Second, times of great change—e.g., for environmental clean-up in Eastern Europe—require short-term inconsistencies such as supporting a highly polluting factory in order to accomplish long term ends. At one moment in time, a snapshot exposes a “foolish” inconsistency, but a long-term view reveals the wisdom of not attempting to treat complex problems with simple solutions. Third, some conditions of the real world will always require the individual to serve two masters, as in a classic matrix structure. Product and functional demands cannot be made perfectly consistent with each other, and to expect the organization to make them so is to wish for the impossible. Under the above conditions, it is better to teach individuals how to handle complex, inconsistent demands than it is to hold organizations responsible for eliminating them. While Kerr would work towards an organization in which “no one needs goodness,” we would hold our teaching and training systems responsible for making “goodness” and complexity part of the talent an individual brings to the organization. To put complexity and goodness beyond the individual and entirely in the province of the organization is to demand of the organization the impossible, and demean the human beings who are its substance and soul.