Knowledge that Transforms

Abstract Expectancy-disconfirmation has been the dominant paradigm to explain the formation of consumer satisfaction for over 40 years. Within this paradigm, it is possible for expectations to have opposing effects on consumer satisfaction depending on the underlying psychological processes presupposed. In general, assimilation processes predict positive effects, while contrast processes predict negative effects. A comprehensive assessment of the empirical evidence for these positions is missing. Hence, we provide a meta-analysis of expectancy-disconfirmation research, using 150 records ( N = 58,597), to test the direct effects of perceived performance and performance expectations on consumer satisfaction, while also including disconfirmation as a mediator in each path (using meta-analytical path analysis). We found evidence for an overall positive relationship between expectations and consumer satisfaction ( r = .29 [0.24, 0.34]) and no evidence supporting contrast effects. Moderator analyses revealed that the positive correlation between performance expectations and consumer satisfaction was significantly stronger for predictive (vs. normative) expectations, for services (vs. goods), and for cross-sectional (vs. longitudinal and experimental) studies. Furthermore, we found an unexpected downward publication bias, which suggests that the true correlation between disconfirmation and consumer satisfaction is higher than the (already high) estimate we found. We discuss how future research can empirically scrutinize popular practitioner views and promote the development of causal explanations, account for non-linear effects, and elucidate the anomalous publication bias found here.

Abstract The growing gender polarization in consumers’ pro-environmental engagement—with women more engaged than men—suggests that organizations should consider gender a key criterion when targeting their cause-related marketing and social advocacy campaigns for environmental causes. However, multilevel analyses of 11 behavioral interventions across 63 countries ( N = 56,582) reveal that relying on gender alone is insufficient and can even backfire, uncovering a surprising paradox: The gender gap in pro-environmental engagement widens among liberal consumers, in societies with higher gender equality, and cultures emphasizing care over competition. These gender paradoxes emerge when identities and societal contexts intersect, revealing why interventions ignoring such complexities can fail. Results show that a collective action framing is effective across several identity combinations, while a negative emotional appeal can backfire, particularly among conservative men in gender-equal countries. A web-based tool helps marketers and policymakers select effective environmental interventions across intersecting individual and country-level factors, enabling targeted advocacy and cause-related marketing.

Abstract The use of social media influencers as persuasive marketing agents has become ubiquitous. However, a comprehensive understanding of their effectiveness, mechanisms, and moderation is still lacking. To address this gap, we conducted a meta-analysis of 71 papers, yielding 135 experimental studies and 571 effect sizes related to the impact of social media influencers compared to other forms of brand endorsements. Our results reveal that social media influencers significantly impact both consumer engagement and purchase intention, and they are relatively more effective than brand posts, virtual influencers, and celebrities. A meta-analytic structural equation model analyzing the influencing mechanisms suggests that social media influencers enhance consumer responses indirectly through their credibility and attractiveness. A meta-regression analysis further shows that various factors—including characteristics of the influencers, message, products, social media platforms, and followers, as well as their interaction with influencer size—moderate the effectiveness of social media influencers. Notably, our results indicate that influencer size can address some inconsistencies in previous research. For instance, small and medium-sized influencers are more effective in driving engagement, while larger influencers have greater impact on purchase intention. Our research provides novel, rich, and nuanced insights that can help managers with decisions such as: (a) when to choose influencers over alternatives, and (b) how to optimize their use.

Abstract Brands communicate who they are through visual content (e.g., images, videos). How does the visual complexity of such content shape perceived brand status (prestige, luxury)? This research examines two key aspects of visual complexity: edge complexity (edge density and irregularity) and color complexity (hue quantity and dissimilarity). Drawing on computer-vision analyses of over 400,000 visuals and a controlled experiment, the findings show that: (1) edge complexity exerts a U-shaped effect on perceived brand status, such that status perceptions are lowest at moderate levels of edge complexity and higher at low or high levels; (2) color complexity consistently reduces perceived brand status; and (3) these effects operate sequentially through perceived visual curation (how intentionally and professionally crafted a visual appears) and perceived exclusivity (how limited in availability the offering appears). Theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications are discussed.

Abstract This research examines the dynamic effects of video advertising features on viewers’ attentional focus. We leverage state-of-the-art computer vision techniques to extract frame-level measures of visual complexity and scene cuts, and we combine these with eye-tracking data that capture attention via moment-to-moment attentional synchrony across viewers. Our findings indicate that short and visually simple scenes elicit higher levels of attentional synchrony. A time-series analysis of 2,520 individual viewing experiences across 42 public service announcements, reveals that visual complexity exerts a delayed, negative effect on attentional synchrony, whereas scene cuts (i.e., shorter scene durations) boost attention. Together, these results demonstrate that short and simple scenes help sustain attentional focus, which subsequently enhances narrative immersion, ad liking, and recognition. Our new analytical framework illustrates how computer vision, time-series modeling, and neuromarketing measures can be effectively integrated to advance video advertising research, while also offering actionable guidance for marketers to optimize viewer attention.

Abstract Access-based consumption, defined as transactions that may be market mediated in which no transfer of ownership takes place, is conceptualized by Bardhi and Eckhardt (2012). While it was introduced to explore consumer engagement in the sharing economy, conceptually it challenges the dominant assumption of ownership in marketing. This paper reflects on the impact of ABC and its boundary conditions. We critically interrogate and expand on five challenges of the original concept: the static dichotomy of access versus ownership; its transactional framing; its lack of identity value; its treatment of ideology; and its reliance on one context. We discuss the implications of ABC for marketing research related to: a prosumer role of the consumer; its ambivalent responsibility and governance; the bundled, or layered notions of access/ownership for digital ownership; as well as its implications for platformized consumption, which reinforces its instrumental sociality, and where value is extracted through data rather than ownership.

Colorism, or discrimination based on skin tone, has been widely documented as privileging lighter and disadvantaging darker skin tones in personal and professional contexts. In contrast, the current research uncovers a novel and positive “dark is hardworking” association in India. This association is theorized based on sociological accounts linking dark skin to outdoor labor, personal accounts of dark skin–toned individuals overcoming discrimination to achieve success, and widespread media cues featuring dark skin–toned achievers in arduous career pursuits. Darker skin tone thus cues perceived competence of service providers, driven by perceptions of being more hardworking. Evidence from six studies, including five experiments and a behavioral field study, demonstrates that although lighter skin continues to be advantageous in attractiveness-favoring professions (such as beauty consulting), darker skin offers a distinct advantage to service providers in competence-favoring fields (such as financial and technical services). Furthermore, highlighting competence can increase the preference for darker skin–toned professionals, even in attractiveness-favoring domains. This research contributes to the literature on stigmatized groups, specifically colorism and its effects on stereotyped evaluation of service providers. The findings provide strategic insights for service providers and have implications for social policy.

The rise of content-creation technologies such as generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) has reshaped the way people produce and consume content. These technologies democratize content creation, enabling inexperienced individuals to generate content that rivals the quality produced by professionals. This article adopts a game-theoretic model to study how the democratization of content creation affects welfare. While the content-democratization technology can assist low-quality creators in improving their content quality, it can precipitate a flood of such content in the market and crowd out high-quality content production, leading to welfare losses. An incremental technology development with a small reduction in the quality gap can hurt individual consumers and all creators, leading to a lose-lose market outcome. In contrast, a development with a high reduction in the quality gap benefits individual consumers and all creators, leading to a win-win outcome. Furthermore, when platforms can more effectively screen content and promote high-quality content, welfare rises, but the content-democratization technology is more likely to reduce welfare. The findings help explain the distinct impacts of content democratization in different industries.