Contrary to Sims's claim [1980], Stogdill [1974] does discuss punishment within organizations, although there is no entry under punishment or punitive per se.

In this article we address the major theoretical and methodological problems encountered in attempts to arrive at valid and reliable measures of organizational strategy. Our discussion is based on a series of empirical studies of the strategic behaviors of nearly 200 organizations in ten industries. In these studies, four different approaches for measuring strategy have been employed. We describe each approach and discuss its advantages and disadvantages.

It is difficult to design and implement new public policies and programs, at least partially owing to the fact that few useful methods are available to help shape the planning, decision-making, and implementation processes required for change. Planning often tends to focus on wishful thinking rather than on a realistic assessment of the probable outcomes. In this article we describe an action-reaction approach to planning that explicitly recognizes the restrictions on program impact arising from the system in which change is being attempted. A hypothetical example shows the application of this method to the design of a health-care delivery program. The article concludes with a discussion of the long-term uses of the data base that may be compiled with this method.

Kerr [1976] has coined the term “substitutes for leaders hip” in reference to nonleader sources of task structure and direction. We focus on one such substitute, the capability of the follower for self-management Individuals manage their own behaviors by setting personal standards, evaluating their performance in terms of these standards, and by self-administering consequences based on their self-evaluations. Specific techniques such as self-observation, goal specification, cueing strategies, incentive modification, and rehearsal can be used to exercise self-management behavior. Organizational leaders can help subordinates develop self-management skills.

The concept of strategy continues to elude a common definition and operationalization. My purpose in this paper is to discuss alternative ways of operationalizing strategy, their strengths and limitations, and their appropriateness to different research questions. My particular focus is on business-level strategies, and I include an overview of available research questions involving business-level strategy.

Our basic purpose in this paper is twofold: (1) to call attention to “organizational symbolism,” an important aspect of all institutions that has been virtually ignored, and (2) to suggest questions for a comprehensive research program for studying this topic.

In 1968, Locke set forth the proposition that goals mediate the effects of incentives (e.g., feedback, participation, and money) on performance. Research is reviewed here to determine the extent to which Locke’s contention is supported. We attempt to identify (1) individual and situational factors that may mediate the incentive-goal-performance relationship, and (2) integrate the literature. We also offer a model and suggestions for future research.

Two distinct and sequential processes of programming and budgeting are recommended in the current literature and have been widely adopted in practice as means for translating corporate strategy into action plans and financial statements. We suggest that this distinction results from debatable interpretations of a seminal conceptual framework of planning and control, and represents inefficient and less effective practice compared to our proposed alternative.