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Subjectivity in Professionals' Incentive Systems: Differences between Promotion‐ and Performance‐Based Assessments

Contemporary Accounting Research 2018 35(1), 31-57
Abstract We examine how managers assess performance and promotion prospects—that is, the ex ante likelihood of promotion—and the conditions under which these assessments diverge. We argue that managers apply different cognitive schemas when they make different assessments. To the extent that a signal provides different information about future versus current contributions, assessed performance and promotion prospects are likely to diverge. In two experiments, we manipulate professionals' promotion eligibility and level of consultative decision making. We find that experienced managers assess performance and promotion prospects differently, but only when professionals are promotion eligible. Specifically, more (as opposed to less) consultative decision making decreases promotion prospects while not affecting assessed performance (Experiment 1) or even improving it (Experiment 2). By contrast, more consultative decision making improves both assessments when professionals are not eligible for promotion. We shed light on the relations between subjective assessments, including that promotion is not necessarily the consequence of superior assessed performance.

Business Strategy, Financial Reporting Irregularities, and Audit Effort

Contemporary Accounting Research 2013 30(2), 780-817
This study examines whether clients' business strategies are a factor in determining the occurrence of financial reporting irregularities and the level of audit effort. We use the organizational strategy theory of Miles and Snow to develop a comprehensive measure of business strategy using publicly available data. We find that Miles and Snow's Prospector strategy is more likely to be involved in financial reporting irregularities and generally requires greater audit effort. The business strategy measure also appears to capture client business risk and provides incremental explanatory power beyond the individual measures of client complexity or risk used in traditional audit fee models. We contribute to the literature by constructing a replicable business strategy measure and identifying organizational business strategy as an important ex ante determinant of financial reporting irregularities and levels of audit effort. Our results suggest that investigating how audits can be improved to reduce financial reporting irregularities among Prospector clients is an important area for audit practice and future research.

Credit Ratings and Taxes: The Effect of Book–Tax Differences on Ratings Changes

Contemporary Accounting Research 2010 27(2), 343-343
This paper examines whether credit analysts utilize the information contained in the difference between book and taxable income in analyzing a firm’s credit risk. Increased book–tax differences may be informative for credit rating agencies as they may signal decreased earnings quality or changes in the firm’s off–balance sheet financing. Results suggest a significant negative association between positive changes in book–tax differences and ratings changes. This evidence is consistent with large positive changes in book–tax differences signaling decreased earnings quality and/or increased off–balance sheet financing. We also find that large negative changes in book–tax differences result in less favorable rating changes, consistent with these changes signaling decreased earnings quality. In additional analyses, we find that the association between changes in book–tax differences and rating changes is attenuated for high–tax‐planning firms (e.g., where book–tax differences more likely reflect tax planning than decreased earnings quality).

Évaluation du crédit et fiscalité : l’incidence des écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal sur la variation des notations

Contemporary Accounting Research 2010 27(2), 351-351
Les auteurs se demandent si les analystes de crédit utilisent l’information que livrent les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal dans l’analyse du risque de crédit que présentent les entreprises. L’augmentation de l’écart entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal peut être révélatrice pour les agences d’évaluation du crédit, car elle peut signaler une détérioration de la qualité des résultats ou des modifications dans le financement hors bilan de l’entreprise. Les résultats de l’étude semblent indiquer l’existence d’un lien négatif significatif entre les changements positifs dans les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal et la variation des notations. Cette observation confirme l’hypothèse selon laquelle les changements positifs importants dans les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal signalent une détérioration de la qualité des résultats et (ou) une augmentation du financement hors bilan. Les auteurs constatent également que les changements négatifs importants dans les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal donnent lieu à des variations des notations moins favorables, ce qui corroborerait la thèse selon laquelle ces changements signalent une détérioration de la qualité des résultats. En procédant à des analyses complémentaires, les auteurs observent que le lien entre les changements dans les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal et la variation des notations est moins marqué dans le cas des entreprises qui se livrent activement à la planification fiscale (les écarts entre résultat comptable et résultat fiscal étant, par exemple, plus susceptibles d’indiquer des activités de planification fiscale qu’une détérioration de la qualité des résultats).

Capital Gains Taxes and Acquisition Activity: Evidence of the Lock‐in Effect*

Contemporary Accounting Research 2007 24(2), 315-344 open access
The lock-in effect proposes that capital gains taxes represent transaction costs that increase the reservation price for security owners and, ceteris paribus, reduce trading volume. Consistent with the lock-in effect, previous empirical research documents price and reactions to enacted changes in the capital gains tax rate. We investigate whether the volume hypothesis predicted by the lock-in effect extends to corporate acquisition activity. In particular, we analyze whether aggregate corporate acquisition activity is inversely associated with shareholder capital gains tax rates. We measure quarterly corporate acquisition activity from 1973 through 2001 using (1) the percentage of traded firms acquired in a calendar quarter and (2) the percentage of market value of traded firms acquired in a calendar quarter. In supplemental analysis, we measure acquisition activity at the industry level (i.e., as the percentage of firms and percentage of market value acquired by industry annually). In each analysis we model acquisition activity as a function of the maximum long-term capital gains tax rate for individuals and other macroeconomic factors previously hypothesized to be associated with acquisition activity. Consistent with a lock-in effect for corporate acquisitions, we find a significant negative association between corporate acquisition activity and the capital gains tax rate whether we measure acquisition activity in the aggregate or at the industry level. In addition, we find that this negative association is attributable to increased (decreased) taxable acquisition activity during periods of low (high) capital gains tax rates. These results suggest that, ceteris paribus, capital gains taxes represent significant transaction costs that influence the level of corporate acquisition activity.

Properties of Economic Income in a Private Information Setting*

Contemporary Accounting Research 1996 13(2), 401-422
Abstract. This paper adopts a valuation perspective within an asymmetric information setting and explores properties of economic income. The optimal intertemporal contract induces an accrual component of income which would not exist absent the information problem. The contracting solution introduces a dampening effect—if cash flow increases by one dollar, income increases by less than one dollar. Thus, the accrual is inversely related to cash flows. Further, this dampening is greater for more favorable cash outcomes. Résumé. Les auteurs adoptent la perspective de l'évaluation en situation d'asymétrie de l'information et explorent les propriétés du bénéfice économique. Le contrat intertemporel optimal fait intervenir une amplification du bénéfice qui n'existerait pas si ce n'était de la présence du problème d'information. La solution contractuelle amène un effet atténuateur — c'est‐à‐dire qu'à une augmentation du flux monétaire de un dollar correspond une augmentation du bénéfice de moins de un dollar. Ainsi, l'amplification est en relation inverse avec les flux monétaires. En outre, l'atténuation est plus marquée dans le cas de résultats monétaires plus avantageux.

The Significance of Audit Decision Aids and Precase Jurists' Attitudes on Perceptions of Audit Firm Culpability and Liability*

Contemporary Accounting Research 1993 9(2), 489-507
Abstract. During the past decade, public accounting firms have found themselves targets of litigation. The legal costs associated with the “expectations gap” have been observed to be nontrivial. Among the responses made by some firms in the profession is the increased use of auditor decision aids in an effort to improve auditor adherence to a “standard” that these firms believe they can defend in court. However, once implemented, these “standards,” if not adhered to, may have profound legal ramifications. This paper reports on a behavioral study of these issues. The subjects were 82 U.S. general jurisdiction judges. Findings indicate that the jurists did rely on internal firm guidance when evaluating injured‐party claims. Résumé. Depuis une dizaine d'années, les cabinets d'experts‐comptables ont été la cible de poursuites en justice. Les observations effectuées démontrent que les frais juridiques associés au « déficit par rapport aux attentes » sont appréciables. Certains cabinets de la profession réagissent, entre autres, en recourant davantage aux aides à la décision conçues pour les vérificateurs, de façon à favoriser chez leurs employés le respect de « normes » que ces cabinets estiment pouvoir défendre devant les tribunaux. Or, une fois établies, ces « normes ≫, si elles ne sont pas respectées, peuvent avoir de sérieuses conséquences juridiques. Les auteurs rendent compte d'une étude de comportement relative à ces questions. Dans le cadre de cette étude, 82 juges américains de compétence générale ont été interrogés. Les résultats de l'étude indiquent que les juristes se sont appuyés sur les directives internes du cabinet dans l'évaluation des griefs des parties lésées.

Attributes of articles impacting contemporary accounting literature*

Contemporary Accounting Research 1989 5(2), 793-815
Abstract. This paper describes and analyzes four attribute dimensions that have impacted contemporary accounting literature (CAL) between 1976 and 1984, and develops a model that predicts attribute levels in 1985 and 1986. The attribute dimensions studied are: accounting area, research method, school of thought, and geographical focus. Publication counts and citation analyses are performed on a data set of 1,110 accounting articles. The results suggest that linear trends exist over time in the publication and citation measures of selected attributes of accounting papers; that new or emerging attribute areas are more likely to be influential than are papers published in established areas; and that it is easier to predict the relative influence of publications that will exhibit certain attributes than it is to predict the number of papers that will be published with these attributes. Résumé. Les auteurs décrivent et analysent quatre aspects de préoccupation qui ont eu des répercussions sur les publications contemporaines en comptabilité entre 1976 et 1984 et créent un modèle permettant de prévoir les niveaux de préoccupation des années 1985 et 1986. Les aspects de préoccupation faisant l'objet de l'étude sont les suivants: le domaine comptable, les méthodes de recherche, les écoles de pensée et l'optique géographique. Les auteurs precèdent au dénombrement des publications et à l'analyse des citations sur un corpus de 1110 articles comptables. Les résultats donnent à penser qu'il existe des tendances linéaires, dans le temps, dans les mesures des publications et des citations relatives à des préoccupations choisies dans les articles comptables; que les publications dans des domaines de préoccupation nouveaux ou en émergence sont plus susceptibles d'influencer que ne le sont les publications dans des domaines établis; et qu'il est plus facile de prédire l' influence relative des publications portant sur certaines préoccupations qu'il ne l'est de prédire le nombre de documents qui seront publiés relativement à ces préoccupations.