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On the “Realities” of Investor‐Manager Interactivity: Baudrillard, Hyperreality, and Management Q&A Sessions

Contemporary Accounting Research 2020 37(2), 1290-1325
This paper draws on extensive fieldwork to explore the nature, scope, and implications of management preparations for the question and answer session (Q&A) that occurs during a firm's results presentation. Prior literature has associated the value of this encounter with investor‐manager interactivity. As such, it is assumed that there are high levels of managerial authorship, ownership, and spontaneity as executives face questions from analysts. Following on, it is generally assumed that this translates into an increased risk of unintended disclosure, through verbal and nonverbal messaging. However, our data indicate that management engages in vast preparatory work to mitigate the risks associated with real (“original,” natural, spontaneous, un‐staged) interactivity. Instead, the Q&A is carefully planned, organized, scripted, and rehearsed. As such, the event is transformed into a hyperreal encounter in the Baudrillardian sense. Despite this, the value of the Q&A is not necessarily impaired. Instead, these managerial backstage preparations arguably make the encounter realer than real. We suggest that the Q&A that we observe (the “copy”) is more useful than the original might have been. Our work provides evidence and discussion of two interconnected paradoxes: perfection and self‐reference. This study not only raises important questions, challenges, and opportunities for researchers interested in the study of investor‐manager interactions but also speaks to those with an interest in workplace meetings and Q&A more broadly.

Aggregate efficiency measures and Simpson's Paradox*

Contemporary Accounting Research 1992 9(1), 329-342
Much work has been directed to develop aggregate efficiency measures for firms or decision‐making units (DMUs) in which we are able to observe only the outputs and inputs. Assuming that each DMU has the same type of observed outputs and inputs and using only this information, Farrell's technical efficiency and the CCR ratio can be used to assign an aggregate measure of efficiency to each DMU, which can then be used to compare the efficiency of the DMUs. This paper considers a subset of the general aggregate efficiency problem called the matched output/input case in which each output is matched to exactly one input, forming a subunit. Dividing the output by the input for each subunit within a DMU yields a subunit ratio that is the output per unit input. For a particular subunit, the subunit ratios for two DMUs can be compared directly. If all the subunit ratios of one DMU exceed the corresponding subunit ratios in another DMU, then we should reasonably expect that any aggregate efficiency measure has the efficiency of the first DMU greater than the efficiency of the other DMU. This requirement is defined as the Matched Output/Input Axiom, which is then shown to be violated for certain data sets satisfying Simpson's Paradox. Both Farrell's technical efficiency and the CCR ratio are then shown to violate the Matched Output/Input Axiom, which raises questions about the overall validity of both procedures. Résumé. Les travaux visant l'élaboration de mesures globales du rendement des unités décisionnelles ou des entreprises, dans lesquelles il n'est possible d'observer que les extrants et les intrants, sont nombreux. En supposant que le même type d'extrants et d'intrants est observé pour chaque unité décisionnelle et que cette information est la seule qui soit utilisée, le rendement technique de Farrell et le ratio CCR (Charnes, Cooper et Rhodes) peuvent être utilisés pour attribuer une mesure globale de rendement à chaque unité décisionnelle, mesure qui peut ensuite permettre de comparer le rendement des différentes unités. Les auteurs étudient un sous‐ensemble du problème général de rendement global, le cas de concordance extrant‐intrant, dans lequel chaque extrant est associé à exactement un intrant, pour former un sous‐ensemble. En divisant l'extrant par l'intrant pour chaque sous‐ensemble d'une unité décisionnelle, on obtient, pour chacun d'eux, un ratio représentant l'extrant par unité d'intrant. Pour un sous‐ensemble particulier, les ratios de deux unités décisionnelles peuvent faire l'objet d'une comparaison directe. Si la totalité des ratios des sous‐ensembles d'une unité décisionnelle excède la totalité des ratios des sous‐ensembles correspondants d'une autre unité décisionnelle, on est en droit de s'attendre à ce que l'application d'une mesure globale du rendement, quelle qu'elle soit, indique que le rendement de la première unité est supérieur à celui de la seconde. Les auteurs démontrent que ce principe, défini comme étant l'axiome de concordance extrant‐intrant, est transgressé pour certains ensembles de données répondant aux critères du paradoxe de Simpson. Ils démontrent également que le rendement technique de Farrell ainsi que le ratio CCR dérogent à l'axiome de concordance extrant‐intrant, ce qui les amène à s'interroger sur la validité globale des deux procédés.