Knowledge that Transforms

This article proposes a new approach to modeling the antecedents of incongruence between 2 dependent variables. In this approach, incongruence is decomposed into 2 orthogonal components representing directional and nondirectional difference (DNDD). Nondirectional difference is further divided into components representing shared and unique variability. We review previous approaches to modeling antecedents of difference, including the use of arithmetic, absolute, and squared differences, as well as the approaches of Edwards (1995) and Cheung (2009). Based on 2 studies, we demonstrate the advantages of DNDD approach compared with other methods. In the first study, we use a Monte Carlo simulation to demonstrate the circumstances under which each type of difference arises, and we compare the insights revealed by each approach. In the second study, we provide an illustrative example of DNDD approach using a field dataset. In the discussion, we review the strengths and limitations of our approach and propose several practical applications. Our article proposes 2 extensions to the basic DNDD approach, including modeling difference with a known target or "true" value, and using multilevel analysis to model nondirectional difference with exchangeable ratings. (PsycInfo Database Record

distal success. We drew upon self-regulatory theories to predict that the trade-off between proximal and distal concerns is managed by allocating resources according to the demands of the situation. Specifically, we predicted that the tendency to allocate resources according to goal-performance discrepancies would improve distal performance. We tested our hypotheses using data from 5 National Hockey League (NHL) seasons. As expected, NHL teams used goal-performance discrepancies to allocate a key resource-playing time of their most valuable players. More importantly, between-team variance in resource allocation strategy accounted for significant variance in distal performance (end of season record). These results provide evidence that strategic reductions in resource allocation to proximal performance episodes is a fundamental self-regulatory process necessary for facilitating long-term success. (PsycINFO Database Record

Unit-level dismissal rates have rarely been studied, but utility analysis suggests that increasing dismissal rates can improve performance by increasing the contribution of a unit's workers. This proposition comports with other theory around dismissals but contradicts substantial empirical evidence. We extend the staffing utility framework, taking a multilevel perspective and attending to both within- and between-unit effects of dismissal rate practices. We test our theory in monthly observations from 1,047 retail locations over almost 3 years. Our results explain how between-unit associations between workforce contribution and unit performance can mask the within-unit benefit of increasing dismissal rates. This insight reconciles theory with prior evidence, although some researchers have interpreted them to be at odds. A better understanding of the complex causes and consequences of dismissal rates has the potential to open new avenues of research and inform practice in ways that promote unit effectiveness. (PsycInfo Database Record

This article advances the understanding of when and how formal status of small-scale entrepreneurs can contribute to higher growth in comparison to their informal counterparts. Our integrative framework suggests that both formal status and personal initiative (PI) behavior have a common pathway to predict firm growth. More importantly, formal firms improve their growth perspectives only if the entrepreneurs show a high degree of PI. The integrative framework was tested using longitudinal data with 2 measurement points with a total of 190 formal and informal entrepreneurs in the Sub-Saharan African country of Zimbabwe. Results show that both formal status and PI have indirect effects on firm growth through available resources. Further, PI has a dual-path moderating effect on the indirect effect of formal status to firm growth such that the indirect effect of formal status on firm growth via available resources is strongest when entrepreneurs have high PI, but there is no indirect effect when PI is low. Our research shows the importance of considering the interplay of institutional and psychological factors for explaining firm growth in developing countries. (PsycINFO Database Record

Situational judgment tests (SJTs) have emerged as a staple of assessment methodologies for organizational practitioners and researchers. Despite their prevalence, many questions regarding how to interpret respondent choices or how variations in item construction and instruction influence the nature of observed responses remain. Existing conceptual and empirical efforts to explore these questions have largely been rooted in reflexive psychometric measurement models that describe participant responses as indicative of (usually multiple) latent constructs. However, some have suggested that a key to better understanding SJT responses lies in unpacking the judgment and decision-making processes employed by respondents and the psychological and contextual factors that shape how those processes play out. To this end, the present article advances an integrative and generalizable process-oriented theory of SJT responding. The framework, labeled situated reasoning and judgment (SiRJ), proposes that respondents engage in a series of conditional reasoning, similarity, and preference accumulation judgments when deciding how to evaluate and respond to an SJT item. To evaluate the theory's plausibility and utility, the SiRJ framework is translated into a formal computational model and results from a simulation study are analyzed using neural network and Bayesian survival analytic techniques that demonstrate its capability to replicate existing and new empirical effects, suggest insights into SJT interpretation and development, and stimulate new directions for future research. An interactive web application that allows users to explore the computational model developed for SiRJ (https://grandjam.shinyapps.io/sirj) as well as all reported data and the full model/simulation code (https://osf.io/uwdfm/) are also provided. (PsycInfo Database Record

The multifaceted structure of multisource job performance ratings has been a subject of research and debate for over 30 years. However, progress in the field has been hampered by the confounding of effects relevant to the measurement design of multisource ratings and, as a consequence, the impact of ratee-, rater-, source-, and dimension-related effects on the reliability of multisource ratings remains unclear. In separate samples obtained from 2 different applications and measurement designs (N₁ [ratees] = 392, N₁ [raters] = 1,495; N₂ [ratees] = 342, N₂ [raters] = 2,636), we, for the first time, unconfounded all systematic effects commonly cited as being relevant to multisource ratings using a Bayesian generalizability theory approach. Our results suggest that the main contributors to the reliability of multisource ratings are source-related and general performance effects that are independent of dimension-related effects. In light of our findings, we discuss the interpretation and application of multisource ratings in organizational contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

We illustrate the effects of range restriction and a form of criterion contamination (individual differences in course-taking patterns) on the validity of SAT scores for predicting college academic performance. College data facilitate exploration of differential validity's determinants because they (a) permit the use multivariate range-restriction corrections to more accurately account for differential range restriction across subgroups and (b) allow for separate examinations of composite performance and specific performance episodes, the latter of which controls for ecological contamination of composite performance due to individuals' choices of performance opportunities. Using data from 363,004 students at 107 U.S. institutions, we found that controlling for course-taking patterns resulted in validity coefficients that were appreciably larger than predictors' correlations with obtained grade point averages (GPAs). The validities of SAT scores for predicting the first-year college performance of Black and Hispanic students were not significantly different from the validity for White students after correcting for both course-taking patterns and differential range restriction, but significant Black-White differences were detected for predicting 4-year cumulative performance. Validity estimates for predicting both first-year and 4-year cumulative performance were significantly smaller among Asian students than White students after making these corrections. The SAT's observed validity for predicting college GPAs was substantially lower for males than females and, unexpectedly, controlling for course-taking patterns increased male-female validity differences. Implications for personnel selection research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

It is often seen as axiomatic in the social capital literature that relationships require ongoing maintenance to remain valuable. As a result, nearly all social network research has only considered relationships that are active (or recently restored to activity after a period of dormancy). Seldom considered is the impact of still-dormant, unmaintained ties that remain dormant. Using two bounded-network studies (one in a school district, one in a private company), we find consistently that still-dormant ties increase employees' organizational commitment. However, we also find that active ties can "dilute" this effect, rendering dormant ties less relevant and meaningful to individuals, or act as "preservatives" keeping dormant ties relevant and valued. In a third, vignette-based study, we find two mechanisms for the effect of dormant ties on organizational commitment: perceptions of the past (fond recollections) and future (information access). Thus, we offer a more time-oriented, layered theory of social network ties that can be activated in people's minds even when not active in practice. (PsycINFO Database Record

Research on power often treats the recipients of powerholders' decisions (i.e., subordinates) as an undifferentiated group, overlooking how their responses to powerholders' decisions might vary and how those responses might affect powerholders' later decisions. In this article, we examine the role of lone dissenting subordinates (individuals whose feedback differs from that expressed by other group members) in shaping powerholders' allocation decisions, and explore the consequences those subordinates face for their dissent. In 3 experimental studies, we show that even as a lone voice, the feedback of a dissenting subordinate influences powerholders' decisions. Powerholders make more self-interested allocations when a lone subordinate provides consistently positive feedback, even when others provide mostly negative feedback. However, powerholders regulate their allocations when a lone subordinate provides candid feedback that points out the self-interested nature of their allocations, even when others provide consistently positive feedback. We further show that lone dissenting subordinates' influence is stronger when they share a salient group membership with the powerholder (e.g., their school or political affiliation). Finally, we find that powerholders reward lone subordinates who provide them with positive feedback, but only punish lone candid subordinates if they do not share a salient group membership with them. Overall, our results suggest that subordinates who risk putting their head above the parapet can improve outcomes for their group members, and can avoid being punished for doing so, as long as they share a salient group membership with the powerholder. (PsycINFO Database Record

Even though considerable work has demonstrated a robust positive relationship between general mental ability (GMA) and task performance, recent work indicates that the expected relationship may not hold in the context of adaptive performance. By integrating the concept of choking, or performing worse than expected, with goal theory, the present work advances a theoretical framework aimed at furthering our understanding of how and when GMA is most likely to meaningfully impact performance. Drawing on this perspective, we propose that the relationship between GMA and adaptive performance is uniquely dependent on the type of goal individuals are striving to achieve. Additionally, we note that the nature of this relationship may evolve as people gain experience dealing with unexpected changes. Results of a discontinuous growth model fit to data obtained from a stock market exercise generally indicate that compared with performance goals, do-your-best and learning goals strengthen the relationship between GMA and adaptive performance. Further, we find that performance goals seem to effectively neutralize the GMA-adaptive performance relationship by benefiting those lower on GMA while simultaneously hindering those with higher levels. In contrast, the relationship is largely positive when either a do-your-best or a learning goal is being pursued, particularly after individuals are exposed to a second change. (PsycINFO Database Record