Knowledge that Transforms

Prior research has produced conflicting views on whether incentives help or hinder innovation. This paper takes a more fine-grained view arguing that the innovation process consists of various interrelated behaviors where the primary role of incentives is not to motivate employees to work harder but rather to support behaviors that are considered effective for generating innovation outcomes. We point at two key innovation behaviors, knowledge exchange and distal search, and argue that they complement each other in driving innovation. Because of this complementarity, the question arises of how to design incentives that simultaneously motivate both behaviors effectively. We propose that adequately designed explicit incentives support knowledge exchange, while implicit career incentives focus the individual’s attention on future tasks and, by doing so, effectively support behavior that opens up distant sources of knowledge. Overall, our study provides a new theoretical argument for why explicit and implicit incentives are interdependent choices within innovation processes. We test our hypotheses combining survey data with patent data from 282 firms in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry.

Based on a two-year participant observation, this paper shows how CSR managers align CSR programs closer to their personal convictions and eventually bring about incremental change. We focus on two CSR managers working on a project to develop a business aimed at serving rural West African consumers and show that while they frame their project in financial terms, they incrementally transform the firm’s representations in accordance with their own vision of CSR. We deploy Butler’s understanding of subjection through performative agency to show that even if CSR managers reproduce the CSR business case discourse to render their actions legitimate and recognizable, this empowers them to exercise a small degree of agency, allowing them to infuse a more inclusive perception of rural low-income populations into the firm’s practices. This paper makes two contributions. First, it shows that the subject can incrementally act to transform the dominant financial discourse governing her subjection to better align it with her desire. Second, we establish that the CSR manager navigates between the traditional duo of CSR actors: the organization and its stakeholders and therefore renders porous the boundary between them both.

By reviewing the theory underlying the design and interdependency of management control systems, I highlight the important role firm dynamics plays in our understanding of these control systems. I provide both theoretical and empirical extensions encouraging authors to explore more longitudinal studies to better understand the path dependency of control system design, how control system elements vary over time within a firm, and how the interdependent nature of individual control elements might vary.

This study considers the role of accounting in moments of resistance in day-to-day institutional contexts. It does so by drawing on the perspectives of Mikhail Bakhtin (1981 , 1984 , 1986) – a Russian philosopher who sought to understand the notion of dialogue in everyday communicative practices. We study these moments of resistance within the context of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) – organizations affected by authoritative discourses of accountability that seek representative, tangible and verifiable understandings of impact and performance. Within our empirical study, we show how accounting reports related to performance and impact gradually moved along a continuum from being received in authoritative mode to internally persuasive mode and how, as a result, resistance to an authoritative discourse of accountability was created and maintained. We found that this was enabled through the reception and promotion of accounting’s subjunctive possibilities.

In this study, I investigate how firms design risk-focused control practices to embed risk considerations in employee decision making. The firm’s objective is to make sure that employee behavior is aligned with firm risk appetite. To investigate how firms go about this control problem, I consider the use of risk-focused results controls (i.e., expanding results controls by risk aspects). Despite the advantages of jointly managing risk and performance through risk-focused results controls, prior literature indicates that their isolated use has also some drawbacks. Recent research hints at the crucial role of risk culture in this regard. In a next step, I present risk-focused information sharing as tangible and manageable dimension of risk culture that alleviates the weaknesses of risk-focused results controls while leaving the benefits of the latter intact. I also posit that risk-focused results controls make risk-focused information sharing more effective. Drawing on complementarity theory, I argue theoretically and show empirically that there is a complementarity between risk-focused results controls and risk-focused information sharing irrespective of the level of risk appetite a firm displays. Furthermore, I identify firm risk appetite as a system-specific contextual variable that drives the degree of complementarity between the two risk-focused control practices. Consistent with my prediction, the results indicate that the complementarity between risk-focused results controls and risk-focused information sharing is significantly stronger for firms displaying a high level of risk appetite. Using data from a survey of 202 companies, I find empirical support for my hypotheses.

Recent reviews of the academic literature indicate that little is known regarding how users evaluate the materiality levels auditors use or respond to quantitative materiality disclosure. Regulators around the world have taken different stances on whether materiality should, or should not, be disclosed in the auditor’s report. In response to the dearth of research on these policy decisions, we examine the effect of audit materiality disclosures, or lack thereof, on professional investors’ decision making across different investment contexts (debt vs. equity, public vs. private). Our study is designed to test global audit public policy and as such our hypotheses are motivated by assertions made by regulators, auditing standards, and audit theory. Among a sample of 246 professional investors in our main experiment and 91 professional investors in two supplemental experiments, we find no consistent evidence that investors incorporate materiality disclosures into their investment decisions. Most importantly, we find evidence that investors’ understanding of materiality is not in line with regulator assertions. For example, investors fail to make consistent connections between the amount of disclosed audit materiality and the level of auditor effort. Our results hold across debt and equity investment settings for both public and private companies. In sum, our findings suggest that disclosures of audit materiality are not well understood by professional investors and are not viewed as decision relevant. This research informs practitioners, regulators, and academics regarding the effect of materiality disclosure on investor decision making as well as stakeholders’ views and expectations of overall materiality.

This paper explores the ways in which leaked documents can be recruited to contribute to the counter-hegemonic aims of the shadow accounting project. Drawing on material published by Wikileaks as part of Cablegate, our case study focuses on private communication between US Embassy officials about Chevron Nigeria from 2002 to 2010. In analyzing these documents, we mobilize the ideas of both Laclau and Mouffe (1985) and Jessop (1990), emphasizing the role discourse plays in the production and maintenance of hegemonic coalitions between powerful state and market actors, which are central to neoliberalism. Our analysis suggests that the sharing of discourse, much of which occurs in private, allows a hegemonic coalition to agree to a “’popular-national’ programme” (Jessop, 1990) that serves the interests of the coalition, while masquerading as collectively beneficial. In our case study, this private discourse provided the means through which the “moral and intellectual leadership” of the coalition could be embedded in a shared commitment to the maintenance of oil production in Nigeria, despite significant resistance from local communities. In choosing to use leaks to explore the state-capital nexus, we offer a shadow account of the discursive production of hegemony that reveals it to be an ongoing and active project. Importantly, we also show that the very act of creating and recreating hegemony through discourse produces moments of vulnerability and fragility that present counter-hegemonic opportunities. When leaks are mobilized to produce shadow accounts of the contradictions and tensions that exist between the state and capital, the “political frontier” can be restored in ways that re-politicize and radicalize democracy (Mouffe, 2018, p. 4).

Responsive regulation (RR) theory posits that effective regulators enforce compliance by escalating penalties only if persuasion fails, otherwise risking formation of a culture of resentment. Using RR theory as a lens, we examine the interactions between large audit firms and the PCAOB during the initial years of PCAOB regulation, when annually-inspected auditors utilized negative tone within their inspection response letters to express public disagreement with their inspection reports. Consistent with our expectations, we find that negative tone within response letters is positively associated with (1) future Part I inspection findings that result in a restatement of a client’s financial statements and (2) the likelihood that Part II of a future inspection report will be publicly disclosed. We triangulate these results and the underlying theory in semi-structured interviews of eight PCAOB inspectors and six audit partners involved in these early interactions between the largest firms and the PCAOB. Consistent with RR theory, the PCAOB viewed public disagreement as indicators of noncompliance, incorporated public disagreement into subsequent inspections, and escalated penalties for noncompliance. Contrary to RR theory’s prescriptions, the PCAOB did not use persuasion as a first reaction to noncompliance. In response, the firms stopped publicly disagreeing, but may have formed a culture of resentment toward the PCAOB.

A Performance Management System (PMS) can be conceived as either a package or a system, with the latter generally being seen as preferable to the former. This paper tries to go beyond this dualism by adopting an approach which understands the integration of the mechanisms within an overall PMS as being a continuum that ranges from a complete lack of integration to a totally integrated system. Loose coupling theory is used to investigate the type of relationships occurring in a PMS, with no and tight coupling being the extreme ends of a spectrum, with loose coupling representing a range of intermediate solutions providing both a desired level of coordination and also a degree of flexibility for local control needs. To ascertain whether one type of PMS coupling delivers superior performance, in terms of both organizational effectiveness and process innovation, this paper conceptually develops a PMS coupling index and validates this using a sample of 140 managers operating in a variety of sectors. The empirical findings show that the coupling approach demonstrates the effect of different PMS coupling states on both outcomes. Despite differing results from prior studies, intermediate levels of coupling appear to give the best outcomes for both effectiveness and innovation. Although further empirical work is necessary, this study contributes to enriching both the PMS design and the innovation management literature. Practitioners can also benefit from this research by using it to help design or redesign the relationships in a PMS in order to effectively match local and overall control needs.

Prior research shows that, under realistic conditions, jurors overly harshly evaluate audit firm culpability when financial statement fraud emerges after issuance of a clean audit opinion. In two experiments, we test theory-based predictions that three topical regulatory factors can reduce jurors’ assessments of audit firm culpability as well as predictions about two key mediators through which these factors effectively operate. The three factors are an auditor judgment rule (AJR) prohibiting juror second-guessing of auditor judgments made in good faith and with a reasonable basis, a critical audit matter (CAM) disclosure in the audit report that pertains to the disputed area, and a juror negligence training (JNT) in which jurors learn and apply legal concepts before the case evaluation. The two mediators are jurors’ perceptions that the audit firm missed a readily detectable fraud (detectability) and tacitly assented to management’s potentially fraudulent actions (acquiescence). Finally, we also test a “reactance-effects” prediction whereby, even while the AJR and JNT interventions decrease assessed auditor culpability on average, we expect the interventions will simultaneously increase assessed damages among the relatively small subset of jurors finding against the audit firm in their presence relative to jurors finding against the audit firm in their absence. Results support our predictions and also demonstrate that the mediators of perceived detectability and acquiescence can underlie these effects.