Knowledge that Transforms

The list below specifies doctoral degrees conferred by U.S. and Canadian universities during academic year July 2018 to June 2019. Lists of degree recipients and subject classifications are provided by the university. Note: Dissertations without classifications may be found under “Y Miscellaneous Categories.”

Histiocytic disorders are uncommon and often affect multiple organ systems. They pose diagnostic challenges because of their rarity and the fact that the nosology of these lesions is still being decided. ALK-positive histiocytosis is one of the newest subtypes and was originally described about 10 years ago, wherein there was a predilection for neonates and infants with multi-organ involvement [1]. Since then, ten additional cases have been reported, with only one having exclusive intracranial disease, along with involvement of the cavernous sinus [2, 3]. Here, we report two additional cases with exclusive involvement of the central nervous system. Case 1 is a 7-year-old girl who presented with a 1-month history of headaches and vomiting. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed an infiltrating 3 cm mass in the cerebellar vermis. The mass was associated with diffusion restriction and was radiologically suspicious for medulloblastoma (Fig. 1a). She underwent gross total resection followed by observation with MRI every 3 months. Postoperative whole-body PET–CT scan showed no evidence of systemic disease. At 1-year postoperative follow-up, there is no evidence of recurrence on neuroimaging. Her only neurologic deficit is a minimal slurring of speech and difficulty with phonation. Case 2 is a 10-year-old girl who presented with medically refractory seizures and was found to have a homogenously enhancing 1.4 cm mass in the right pericentral cortical region on head MRI (Fig. 1g). She underwent focal corticectomy followed by observation. Postoperatively, she has been doing well and has only had one reported seizure. She has not had a recurrent seizure while on antiepileptic therapy. At 6-month postoperative follow-up, there is no evidence of recurrence on neuroimaging. She has no remarkable findings on physical and neurological exam. Consistent with prior reported cases, microscopic examination in both cases showed sheet-like aggregates of large epithelioid cells with irregularly folded nuclei and fine chromatin, foamy cells, Touton-like giant cells, and focal emperipolesis (Fig. 1b–e, h). Immunohistochemical workup in both cases showed ALK expression (Fig. 1f, i), Factor XIIIa, CD68 (Fig. 1j), and CD163 (Fig. 1k) positivity, patchy staining for S-100 protein, and lack of CD1a, BRAF V600E, or GFAP reactivity, although the latter highlighted adjacent and entrapped brain parenchyma with reactive astrocytosis (Fig. 1l). The histopathology observed in these cases of ALK-positive histiocytosis show overlapping features with those of Erdheim–Chester disease (ECD), juvenile xanthogranuloma (JXG), Rosai–Dorfman disease (RDD), and Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). In particular, foamy cells, Touton-like giant cells, variable S-100 staining, and the presence of Factor XIIIa expression suggests the possibility of JXG or ECD [4]. Emperipolesis can be seen in RDD and folded or grooved nuclei are present in LCH. A CD1a immunostain can be used to further rule out LCH. Rarely, ALK-positive histiocytosis can also be confused with astrocytic lesions, particularly at intraoperative consultation Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https ://doi.org/10.1007/s0040 1-019-02027 -7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This essay reviews three recent books on the causes and consequences of student debt. In addition to increases in college tuition and fees, supply and resource constraints both contribute to the growing phenomenon of default: degree completion rates are relatively low, especially at two-year colleges. Default rates actually decrease with the amount of debt incurred, as students who incur more debt are more likely to complete degrees that bolster their earning power. These books suggest some promising policy options, but there are no quick fixes given that the net cost of attending both private and public colleges continues to rise. (JEL D14, I22, I23, I28)

There is growing interest in the history of economic statistics, and Eli Cook has provided in The Pricing of Progress: Economic Indicators and the Capitalization of American Life a fascinating account of the era of economic measurement prior to the creation of the modern System of National Accounts. The story illustrates the dual character of statistics, which is the product of political contestation and social structures, as well as the data by which we can interpret the economy. Appreciating this duality through the history of economic measurement helps explain why political polarization today often seems to play out as competing interpretations of the “facts.” In this context, the idea that GDP growth is a good measure of economic progress is increasingly being challenged, as both the “beyond GDP” agenda and digital disruption point to a growing wedge between what GDP is measuring and economic welfare. Economists should be engaging with the history of the statistics we use every day in order to be able to shape their future. (JEL C38, E01, E23, N10)

Mark Granovetter has written a deep and wide-ranging book on economy and society entitled Society and Economy: Frameworks and Principles. Economists, in particular, will find his discussion on the role of social networks in understanding the problem of aggregation—from micro foundations to large-scale institutional phenomena—especially relevant. And they will find much to ponder over the ways in which overlapping structures—of networks and institutions—shape human behavior and determine aggregate economic outcomes. The high-level and parsimonious style of this book is distinctive and sets it apart from much of contemporary social science. This style and the apparent unwillingness to engage closely with research developments over the past two decades may, however, mean that the book will have limited influence on ongoing and future research. (JEL D02, D90, Z13)

The methodology of economics has been applied with increasing frequency to non-market behavior and interactions. Peter Leeson’s book WTF?!: An Economic Tour of the Weird illustrates both the promise and the perils of this practice. When applied judiciously to environments in which the strategic obfuscation of true motives is widespread, the economic approach can yield valuable insights. But when applied without proper attention to prevailing norms and values, the attempt to rationalize behavior can fall flat and invite ridicule. Economists seeking to understand cultural practices would do well to import insights from other disciplines, and temper their eagerness to export narrow conceptions of rationality. (JEL A12, B41, D01, D10, D23, Z13)

Cigarette smoke (CS) is known to cause mitochondrial dysfunction leading to cellular senescence in lung cells. We determined the mechanism of mitochondrial dysfunction by CS in lung epithelial cells. CS extract (CSE) treatment differentially affected mitochondrial function, such as membrane potential, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and mitochrondrial mass as analyzed by FACS, and were associated with altered oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) protein levels (Complexes I-IV) in primary lung epithelial cells (SAEC and NHBE), and (complexes I and II) in BEAS2B cells. There were dose- and time-dependent changes in mitochondrial respiration (oxygen consumption rate parameters i.e. maximal respiration, ATP production and spare capacity, measured by the Seahorse analyzer) in control vs. CSE treated BEAS2B and NHBE/DHBE cells. Electron microscopy (EM) analysis revealed perinuclear clustering by localization and increased mitochondrial fragmentation by fragement length analysis. Immunoblot analysis revealed CS-mediated increase in Drp1 and decrease in Mfn2 levels that are involved in mitochondrial fission/fusion process. CSE treatment reduced Miro1 and Pink1 abundance that play a crucial role in the intercellular transfer mechanism and mitophagy process. Overall, these findings highlight the role of Miro1 in context of CS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in lung epithelial cells that may contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory lung diseases.

The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-first Century’s thesis is that violence and only violence significantly reduces inequality. It shows supportive cases of violence reducing inequality, especially World War II and the Russian and Chinese Revolutions, and highlights recent peacetime increases in within-country inequality. The great virtue of the book is to present a lot of evidence on both sides for the readers to judge the thesis for themselves. Other historical evidence is not supportive. Other measures of inequality, like absolute poverty or inequality between countries or groups, show many examples of violence making inequality or deprivation worse. The unequal burden of conscription, rationing, and casualties may also show war to be dis-equalizing. Also against the thesis is that recent peaceful globalization of trade, investment, and migration flows, including the rapid growth of China and India, has arguably reduced global inequality and absolute poverty to a historic extent. (JEL D31, D63, D74, F60, N30, N40)

In order to clarify the potential impact of a basic income, we argue that any discussion on whether to adopt a basic income policy should be framed within the greater context of the transfer system as a whole. In particular, such discussion should consider separately the issues of (i) the desired income distribution to be achieved and (ii) the most efficient way of achieving it through a transfer system. Further, we stress the importance of the non-take-up phenomenon in current transfer systems and discuss the potential necessity of a basic income policy in the age of automation. (JEL D31, I32, I38)