In this paper, we investigate value creation by hedge funds using Berk and van Binsbergen's (2015) value-added. We find that, on average, a hedge fund manager extracts $0.76 million per month from the market. We provide strong evidence of persistence in value creation by hedge fund managers. Of three skill indicators—skill ratio, fee ratio, and total compensation—we find that total compensation best identifies the skilled manager out-of-sample. Investors in value-creating funds benefit from a better risk–return payoff. While hedge funds operate in a less competitive market than mutual funds, incentive fees do not indicate greater skill. The value that hedge funds can extract from the market depends on both the profitability and scalability of the investment strategy.

Abstract Efficient investment of personal savings depends on clear risk disclosures. We study the propensity of individuals to violate some implications of expected utility under alternative “mass-market” descriptions of investment risk, using a discrete choice experiment. We found violations in around 25% of choices, and substantial variation in rates of violation, depending on the mode of risk disclosure and participants’ characteristics. When risk is described as the frequency of returns below or above a threshold we observe more violations than for range and probability-based descriptions. Innumerate individuals are more likely to violate expected utility than those with high numeracy. Apart from the very elderly, older individuals are less likely to violate the restrictions. The results highlight the challenges of disclosure regulation.