This paper explains involuntary unemployment in terms of the response of firms to workers' group behavior. Workers' effort depends upon the norms determining a fair day's work. In order to affect those norms, firms may pay more than the market-clearing wage. Industries that pay consistently more than the market-clearing wage are primary, and those that pay only the market-clearing wage are secondary. Thus, this paper also gives a theory for division of labor markets between primary and secondary.

This paper examines adherence to social customs. Models of social customs are found to be inherently multi-equilibrial. It is found that social customs which are disadvantageous to the individual may nevertheless persist without erosion, if individuals are sanctioned by loss of reputation for disobedience of the custom. One example of such a social custom is the persistence of a fair (rather than a market-clearing) wage. In this fashion, involuntary unemployment is explained.

I. Introduction, 169. — II. Relation between payments flows and money demand with threshold-target monitoring, 173. — III. Comments on the model, 178. — IV. Agreement with empirical evidence, 180. — V. Summary and conclusion, 182. — Appendix, 182.

I. Introduction, 488. — II. The model with automobiles as an example, 489. — III. Examples and applications, 492. — IV. Counteracting institutions, 499. — V. Conclusion, 500.

I. Introduction, 353. — II. A price-price inflation, 355. — III. A wage-wage inflation, 363. — IV. Spontaneous inflations and general equilibrium, 371. — V. Conclusions, 373.

A model of social distance is presented that is useful for understanding social decisions. An example is constructed of class stability. Agents who are initially close interact strongly while those who are socially distant have little interaction. In this example, inherited social position, which may be interpreted as social class, plays a dominant role. The relevance of this model to social decisions, such as the choice of educational attainment and childbearing, is discussed in the context of specific ethnographic examples. Class position may play a dominant role in these decisions.