We estimate the impact of charter schools on early-life labor market outcomes in Texas. We find that, at the mean, charter schools have no impact on test scores and a negative impact on earnings. No Excuses charter schools increase test scores and 4-year college enrollment but have a statistically insignificant impact on earnings, although the coefficient is almost identical to what one would expect given the correlation between test scores and wages. Other types of charter schools decrease test scores, 4-year college enrollment, and earnings, and surprisingly the decrease in wages is more negative than one would anticipate.

Science makes progress with rational debate, disagreement, and discussion. In that vein, I am grateful to the authors of the comment, Steven Durlauf and James Heckman, for engaging in one of the most important social issues of our time. Their comment can be synthesized into three points. First, Durlauf and Heckman (2020) believe that we make claims about discrimination, or the absence thereof, when no such conclusions using a direct regression approach are justified. Second, they describe issues with the endogeneity of police-civilian contacts and suggest modeling those interactions. And, third, they express skepticism of any analysis that relies on police narratives regarding interactions with civilians. Below, I respond to each of these in turn. Here is a brief summary. I disagree with their first point—we went through painstaking effort to belabor what our analysis can and cannot teach us about race and policing. Weuse the term “racial differences”114 times in lieuof themoreprescriptive wording—“racial discrimination.”Weuse the phrase “conditional on an interaction” 20 times throughout the paper and explicitly note at the outset—in the fifth paragraph—that if we do not use this phrase, it is implied. I am not sure howmanymore ways we would have needed to caveat our results to satisfy the authors. I agree with their second point, theoretically—that is why the section immediately following the data description is titled “A Note on Potential Selection into Police Data Sets”—but I am perplexed as to why they claim that our sample is “based on ‘stops.’” The truth is that the vast majority of the data they are referring to are gleaned from 911 calls for service in which a civilian requests police presence, not from police lurking to harass civilians. I agree that police shootings that begin with police stopping a civilian and that interaction escalating and becoming deadly are deeply

This study examines the impact on student achievement of high-dosage reading tutoring for middle school students in New York City public schools, using a school-level randomized field experiment. Across 3 years, schools offered at least 130 hours of four-on-one tutoring based on a guided reading model. At the mean, tutoring had a positive and significant effect on school attendance, a positive but insignificant effect on English language arts (ELA) state test scores, and no effect on math state test scores. For black students, our treatment increased attendance by 2.0 percentage points and ELA scores by 0.09 standard deviations per year.