Credit ratings, Municipal bonds, Financial reporting, Monitoring

Recently, there have been many pronouncements and proposals concerning the evaluation and maintenance of internal control systems and related reports by management and by auditors. Some municipal government units already publish the type of internal control information being proposed. This article critically analyzes the internal control reporting practices of municipalities. A content analysis of a sample of municipal reports suggests that existing disclosures do not answer questions of risk exposure, costs and benefits, and the meaning of the diversity of report forms. Further, the municipal sector's experience implies that control disclosures will affect cost/benefit evaluations by management and the auditors' ability to persuade management to implement controls. Some controls which were previously unacceptable can be expected to be implemented due to the perceived benefit of avoiding public reports of management's inaction with regard to auditors' control suggestions.

In the 1960s, a group of culturally similar countries—the Nordic countries—cooperated in harmonizing their companies acts, including their accounting requirements. They even issued a Nordic proposal for new companies acts, intended to be enacted as new laws in each of the Nordic countries. The purpose of the paper is to study this harmonization effort and to suggest future research to enhance our understanding of diverse financial reporting practices. The paper shows that accounting harmonization in this context was difficult, even though the prerequisites for success were excellent. Future research should explore the experiences of accounting harmonization in other contexts. Résumé. Dans les années 60, un groupe de pays de même parenté culturelle — les pays nordiques — ont collaboré à l'harmonisation de leurs lois sur les sociétés ainsi que de leurs exigences en matière comptable. Ils ont même produit une Proposition des pays nordiques relative à de nouvelles lois sur les sociétés, qui devaient être sanctionnées dans chacun des pays participants. Les auteurs ont ici pour but d'analyser cet effort d'harmonisation et de suggérer d'éventuels travaux de recherche qui nous amèneraient à mieux comprendre différentes pratiques en matière d'information financière. Les auteurs expliquent que l'harmonisation comptable, dans ce contexte, s'est révélée difficile, même si les préalables au succès étaient excellents. Les travaux de recherche à venir devraient porter sur l'analyse des expériences d'harmonisation comptable dans d'autres contextes.

This research identifies those characteristics that could potentially influence a choice to create an internal audit department and tests via discriminant analysis to evaluate whether such attributes significantly distinguish between companies with and without an internal audit department. In addition, qualitative characteristics of such departments are described, as is the association of such traits with errors and the overall control environment. A sample of 260 companies is examined. Companies with internal audit departments are observed to be significantly larger, more highly regulated, more competitive, more profitable, more liquid, more conservative in accounting policies, more competent in their management and accounting personnel, and subject to better management controls. Key discriminant variables are the degree of regulation, decentralization, size, the duration of association with present auditors, the existence of an audit committee, EDP control, and pressures by external parties on management to achieve budgetary goals. Qualitative attributes of internal audit are systematically associated with the overall quality of the control environment, as well as errors. The most important attribute appears to be the independence of internal audit in terms of the propriety of the reporting level. An advantage of internal auditing is that external auditors report a 10 percent reduction in the number of hours incurred and greater flexibility appears to exist in the proportion of work performed in off‐peak periods. Résumé. Les auteurs dressent l'inventaire des caractéristiques susceptibles d'influer sur le choix de créer un service de vérification interne et soumettent ces attributs à des tests, par voie d'analyse discriminante, afin de déterminer s'ils permettent d'établir une distinction claire entre les entreprises ayant et n'ayant pas de service de vérification interne. De plus, ils décrivent les caractéristiques qualitatives de ces services, de même que l'association de ces carctéristiques aux erreurs et au contexte global du contrôle. Les auteurs procèdent à l'examen d'un échantillon de 260 entreprises. L'étude révèle que les entreprises possédant des services de vérification interne sont beaucoup plus souvent des entreprises de grande taille, faisant l'objet d'une réglementation plus rigoureuse, plus concurrentielles, plus rentables, ayant davantage de liquidités, plus prudentes dans leurs conventions compatables, possédant une équipe de gestion et un personnel comptable plus compétents et soumises à de meilleurs contrôles de gestion. Les principales variables discriminantes sont le degré de réglementation, la décentralisation, la taille, la durée de l'association avec les vérificateurs actuels, l'existence d'un comité de vérification, le contrôle dans un cadre informatique et les pressions exercées par les tiers sur la direction pour l'atteinte des objectifs budgétaires. Les attributs qualitatifs de la vérification interne sont systématiquement asociés à la qualité globale du cadre de contrôle, de même qu'aux erreurs. L'attribut le plus important semble être le degré d'autonomie du service de vérification interne, c'est‐à‐dire le caractère approprié de ses liens hiérarchiques. La vérification interne comporte un avantage: les vérificateurs externes font état d'une réduction de 10 pour cent dans le nombre d'heures consacrées à la vérification, et il semble exister une plus grande souplesse dans la proportion du travail de vérification effectué en dehors des périodes de pointe.

This research investigates the effects of delays by accounting policy-setters in reconciling the accounting treatment of stock options and stock appreciation rights (SARs). Comment letters to the FASB concerning Interpretation No. 28, observed SAR adoption practices, direct survey results from companies not adopting SARs, stock prices' reaction to the related accounting policy process, and the structure of SAR plans are analyzed. Analysis of the content of lobbyists' letters, descriptive statistics, t-tests, correlation coefficients, and an event study of related AICPA and FASB announcements are utilized. The evidence supports the hypotheses that the accounting treatment of SARs has deterred companies with stock option plans from adopting SARs, has deterred smaller companies from adopting SARs to a greater extent than it has deterred larger companies, has had a discernible "bad news" effect on the market, and has affected the form of those SAR plans which have been adopted. The recent advent of so-called "stock depreciation rights" may well lead to the elimination of SARs, largely due to the accounting treatment of SARs.

Reviews the book "The Auditor-Client Contractual Relationship: An Economic Analysis," by Linda Elizabeth Deangelo.