Research Policy 2025
Sex, science, and society
Abstract
We show that culture affects individuals’ participation in science. Using Scopus data on 3.7 million scientists worldwide, we document that women’s representation in science varies across fields and across countries, even within a field. Women’s representation in both STEM and Non-STEM fields is higher in more gender-equal countries and countries with greater academic freedom. Women’s representation is higher in fields with more inclusive cultures. We provide evidence for two channels through which culture affects representation: migration and productivity. For example, female scientists’ location choices appear to be more sensitive to country culture than those of male scientists. Our results highlight that individuals’ careers in science depend on social factors. Thus, a country’s capacity to engage in scientific research — critical for innovation and economic growth — also hinges on social factors. • Gender-equality, not math gaps, predicts women’s STEM and non-STEM representation. • Women’s representation in science is correlated with academic freedom. • Women avoid less inclusive scientific fields when they have greater freedom. • Female scientists migrate to more gender-equal countries. • The “productivity gap” is lower in gender-equal countries.
- DOI
- 10.1016/j.respol.2025.105400
- Sources
- openalex