This paper presents estimates, for more than 160 countries, of the fraction of the adult population using formal financial intermediaries. The estimates are constructed by combining information on account numbers at banks and microfinance institutions (together with banking depth and GDP data) with estimates from household surveys for a smaller set of countries. An illustrative application of the data compares them with information on poverty: there is a correlation, but it is not clearly causal.

In recent decades, a majority of countries have experienced a systemic banking crisis requiring a major – and expensive – overhaul of their banking system. Budgetary outlays, whether immediate or deferred, have exceeded 50% of GDP in some cases. This paper uses cross-country econometric evidence to examine whether the design of crisis containment and resolution policies can systematically influence the overall magnitude of fiscal costs. We find that accommodating policies such as blanket deposit guarantees, open-ended liquidity support, repeated partial recapitalizations, debtor bail-outs and regulatory forbearance all tend to add significantly and sizably to fiscal costs.

This paper assesses the benefits and risks associated with dollarization of bank deposits. We provide novel empirical evidence on the determinants of deposit dollarization, its role in promoting financial development, and on whether dollarization is associated with financial instability. We find that: (a) the credibility of macroeconomic policy and the quality of institutions are both key determinants of cross-country variations in dollarization; (b) dollarization is likely to promote financial deepening only in a high inflation environment; and (c) financial instability is likely higher in dollarized economies. The implications of these findings for financial sector and monetary policies are briefly discussed.