Voluntary disclosure, Proprietary costs, Disclosure credibility, Private information

Auditing, Auditor resignation, Audit risk, Auditor liability

[We demonstrate that when cost differences among CPA firms serve as a source of economic rents to the incumbent auditor, the switching costs previously cited as the source of the auditors' rents may actually reduce the auditors' economic rents to the benefit of the client. This result has implications for how switching costs affect the way audit engagements are structured and how clients invest in their relationships with auditors. While the resulting behavior may appear to be inefficient or of a suspicious nature, it is a natural consequence of imperfect competition. This behavior includes (i) clients under-investing in their accounting systems, (ii) clients accepting their current auditor's management advisory services (MAS) bid, even though a rival CPA firm has submitted a lower bid for identical MAS, and (iii) inefficient same sourcing for MAS and audit services when CPA firms treat their audit and non-audit divisions as separate profit centers.]

This article presents a model in which the impact of international accounting standards on product market competition can be assessed. Formulating the choice of disclosure rules as the first stage in a multistage game between countries and representative incumbent and entrant firms, we establish conditions under which an enforceable international standard to require line‐of‐business (LOB) reporting could lead to strict improvement in the expected national welfare of participating countries over the equilibrium that would otherwise be attained. Additional results consider the effects of changes in certain model assumptions and the addition of tariffs as further trade policy instruments. Résumé. Les auteurs proposent un modèle permettant d'évaluer l'incidence des normes comptables internationales sur la concurrence, sur les marchés de produits. Ils posent d'abord le choix des règles de présentation de l'information comme étant la première étape d'un jeu à multiples épisodes entre les pays et entre les sociétés en place représentatives du secteur et les nouvelles venues. Ils établissent ensuite les conditions dans lesquelles l'application possible d'une norme internationale exigeant la publication d'information sectorielle pourrait mener à une stricte amélioration de la prospérité nationale attendue des pays participants, au‐delà du niveau d'équilibre qui serait autrement atteint. Les auteurs s'intéressent entre autres, dans leurs travaux, aux répercussions de la modification de certaines hypothèses du modèle et de l'introduction des tarifs douaniers à titre d'instruments de la politique d'échange.

We provide an informational theory for how the ownership claims to a firm might be structured. When the market price of equity provides valuable contracting information there is a benefit to creating separate ownership claims to each of a firm's divisions. However, creating this information also generally has adverse incentive effects because it enriches the agent's strategy space. We show in a complete contracting setting that under a large class of agencies the firm is strictly better off bundling the ownership claims to divisions that are sufficiently similar and creating separate ownership claims only to divisions that are sufficiently different.

We develop a theory of the association between earnings management and voluntary management forecasts in an agency setting. Earnings management is modeled as a “window dressing” action that can increase the firm’s reported accounting earnings but has no impact on the firm’s real cash flows. Earnings forecasts are modeled as the manager’s communication of the firm’s future cash flows. We show that it is easier to prevent the manager from managing earnings if he is asked to forecast earnings. We also show that earnings management is more likely to follow high earnings forecasts than low earnings forecasts. Finally, our analysis shows that shareholders may not find it optimal to prohibit earnings management. Earlier results rationalize earnings management by violating some assumption underlying the Revelation Principle. By contrast, in our model the principal can make full commitments and communication is unrestricted. Nonetheless, earnings management can be beneficial as it reduces the cost of eliciting truthful forecasts.

Frank Gigler, Thomas Hemmer, On the Frequency, Quality, and Informational Role of Mandatory Financial Reports, Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 36, Studies on Enhancing the Financial Reporting Model (1998), pp. 117-147

This study considers the welfare effects of line‐of‐business (LOB) reporting by firms operating in imperfectly competitive markets. The analysis is based on a two‐period model in which a multisegment firm, labeled the incumbent, operates as a monopolist in two markets in the first period and then competes against an entrant in each of the two markets in the second period. The incumbent obtains private information in the first period. LOB reporting fully reveals that information to the entrants; aggregate reporting only partially reveals the incumbent's information. The second‐period consequences on firms and consumers parallel results previously available from the information‐sharing literature. These results serve to explain why some firms opposed the imposition of LOB reporting by accounting rule‐making bodies. The incumbent may distort first‐period production in an attempt to influence entrant beliefs. However, such distortions lower the incumbent's expected first‐period profit and result in no gains in the second period. Nonetheless, in equilibrium, these distortions cannot be avoided unless the entrants observe the incumbent's first‐period production or prices, suggesting a role for nonfinancial disclosures in accounting reports. Résumé. Les auteurs se penchent sur l'effet «protecteur» de la communication d'informations relatives au secteur d'activité par les entreprises qui exercent leurs activités sur des marchés imparfaitement concurrentiels. L'analyse est fondée sur un modèle comportant deux périodes, dans lequel une entreprise oeuvrant dans plusieurs secteurs d'activité‐désignée sous l'appellation d'entreprise installée—exerce un monopole dans deux marchés au cours de la première période et doit ensuite livrer concurrence à un nouveau venu dans chacun des deux marchés au cours de la seconde période. L'entreprise installée obtient de l'information privilégiée au cours de la première période. L'information sectorielle livre intégralement cette information aux nouveaux venus, mais l'information consolidée ne révèle qu'une partie de l'information dont dispose l'entreprise installée. Les résultats de la seconde période pour les entreprises et les consommateurs s'apparentent à ceux qui ont été exposés jusqu'à maintenant dans les écrits relatifs au partage d'informations. Ces résultats viennent expliquer pourquoi certaines entreprises se sont opposées à ce que les organismes de réglementation comptable fassent de la présentation de l'information sectorielle une obligation. L'entreprise installée peut «biaiser» l'information relative à la première période dans l'intention d'influer sur les convictions des nouveaux venus. Ces distorsions diminueront cependant le profit espéré par l'entreprise installée au cours de la première période et se traduiront par des gains nuls au cours de la seconde période. Néanmoins, en situation d'équilibre, ces distorsions ne peuvent être évitées, à moins que les nouveaux venus n'observent la production ou les prix de l'entreprise installée au cours de la première période, ce qui permet de croire que la présentation d'informations non financières dans les rapports comptables a un rôle à jouer.

In this paper we study when it is advantageous to improve corporate transparency by allowing shareholders direct access to corporate information and when it is preferable to rely on a reporting system in which shareholders only gain access to information that management chooses to disclose. We show that in an agency model that allows for contract renegotiation, the desirability of a fully transparent reporting regime hinges on the stewardship properties of the information in question. Specifically, information that is mainly useful for predicting future events and of little use for evaluating past actions should only be made available to the public through management's self‐interested disclosures. Only if the information is useful for making inference about managerial actions can it be optimal to have full corporate transparency, so that outsiders have independent access to the same information as management.

We examine how outsiders rationally interpret a reported loss on derivatives when the application of mark‐to‐market accounting to cash flow hedges creates a mixed attribute problem. We find that because of the mixed attribute problem, the information content of mark‐to‐market accounting is related to the information content of historical cost accounting in a very specific way. This relationship allows us to identify the circumstances under which mark‐to‐market accounting facilitates and when it detracts from the objective of providing an early warning of potential financial distress. We show that the reporting of an impending derivative loss by a distressed firm can actually lead outsiders to infer that the firm is in a better financial position than what they would have inferred under the silence associated with historical cost accounting. Without the mixed attribute problem, mark‐to‐market accounting would always yield more accurate assessments of the firm's financial position.